Introduction
The Stepping Stones report was first envisioned and published by the
Charlottesville/Albemarle Commission on Children and Families (CCF) in
2000. The report provides trend data on a selection of indicators to
gauge the well-being of children and families in the City of
Charlottesville and Albemarle County. Our goal is to create a shared and
data-informed understanding of our collective trajectory, stimulate
dialogue and problem solving, and promote action to improve the lives of
all who reside in our community.
After the CCF was dissolved in 2012, the City of Charlottesville’s
Department of Human Services (DHS) began stewarding the Stepping Stones
report. This year’s report was updated and completed in partnership with
the UVA Equity Center and the Batten School of Leadership and Public
Policy. Partnership with students, staff, and faculty at UVA in
production of the Stepping Stones report has been a frequent component
of this ongoing effort.
We continue to build on the foundation established by the CCF Data
Management Work Group and staff, the administrators and agency experts
with which they collaborated, and the insight and knowledge the
Charlottesville DHS has built to revise and adapt the Stepping Stones
report for the last two decades. It is our shared hope that the report
will continue to prompt community interest and engagement in the
well-being of children and families, provide an accessible and
informative presentation of relevant trends, and encourage our local
leaders, administrators, advocates, and residents to use and develop
data-informed approaches to problem identification, program
implementation, and collective evaluation.
Approach
In updating this community resource, we followed key principles of
data equity and ethics, including openness, reproducibility,
transparency, and contextualization.
Since this report began, there has been a significant movement to
make data from public agencies more open and available. We leverage open
data as much as possible, gathering measures from publicly maintained
sites and collections. These sources are both available to others across
all areas of Virginia, and generally adhere to consistent procedures
from year to year. This ensures we are measuring the same conditions,
behaviors, or outcomes over time. In addition, we use open-source
software to ensure our work is openly accessible and reproducible.
This approach is intended to create processes that are repeatable for
future years and well documented for future researchers. Our processes
for data collection and corresponding code are documented and made
publicly available in a GitHub repository. When measures could not be
acquired computationally, we document our steps; when measures required
manual curation, multiple people completed this work so that we could
validate manual collection.
The report is divided into sections based on the nature of the
measures and their source. For each metric, we provide an overview of
how the collection of measures impacts youth and community well-being,
highlight key trends, present visualizations of each measure, and offer
context and background.
Our Youth
These data represent the youth in our community–your children and
their friends, the children you see at your grocery store or waiting at
the bus stop, and all the children you know in your community are
included here. Although these graphs show single outcomes in isolation,
none of these data exist in a vacuum. The environments we prepare for
youth in our community, their families, the neighborhoods where they
live, and their intersecting identities all provide important context
for understanding each of these individual outcomes. We encourage you to
keep the children you know in mind, and consider how we can do better by
them and future generations.
Contributions
This report is a collaboration between the City of Charlottesville’s
Department of Human Services, the UVA Equity Center, and the Batten
School of Leadership and Public Policy class, Public Interest Data:
Ethics & Practice. The Charlottesville Department of Human Services
sponsored the report. The UVA Equity Center’s Democratization of Data
Initiative team collected, validated and visualized the data and wrote
the report. The students in the course, Public Interest Data: Ethics
& Practice, did the initial work of gathering metrics and providing
background research.
Education and Civic Engagement
Kindergarteners At or Above Reading Levels
Virginia screens all incoming kindergartners with a Phonological
Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS) tool to understand children’s
knowledge of important literacy fundamentals and to identify students
who are at risk for reading difficulties. Historic and structural
inequity cause disparities in opportunity for students by race and
socioeconomic status which impact students’ later learning and
achievement. Early intervention is one mechanism to identify and combat
disparities from widening as students enter kindergarten. In addition,
PALS benchmark scores guide the state’s allocation of Early Intervention
Reading Initiative funds.
- Data considerations: Administered to all incoming
public school kindergartners, PALS-K scores can be used to provide a
full picture of the incoming class. However, this measure provides no
information on children not enrolled in public schools (e.g., children
who are homeschooled or attend private schools).
- How is this measured?: This measure represents the
number of incoming kindergarten students who are at or above PALS
benchmarks as a percent of all incoming kindergarten students
screened.
Notable Trends
- The percent of incoming Kindergarteners at or above PALS benchmarks
increased from 2003 to 2011 in both Charlottesville City Schools (CCS)
and Albemarle County Public Schools (ACPS) but began decreasing again
thereafter.
- Prior to 2020, the percentage of students at or above benchmarks in
ACPS was notably higher than CCS, but the percentages have remained
relatively similar between the two districts since.
Percent of Incoming Kindergarteners At or Above PALS benchmarks for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Source: Annie E. Casey Foundation, Kids Count Data
Center, “Fall PALS-K before
and after
2015/16 in Virginia”
Standards of Learning
The Virginia Department of Education’s Standards of Learning (SOL)
outline minimum expectations of what students should know and be able to
do at each grade level in a range of subjects. SOL tests are
administered in all Virginia public schools starting in 3rd grade, and
the resulting pass rates are used to assess student achievement,
evaluate school and district performance, and determine whether schools
are meeting state and federal standards. Student performance is graded
on a scale of 0-600 with 400-499 representing pass proficiency and 500
and above representing advanced proficiency.
The Virginia Board of Education revised both math and reading SOLs to
raise standards and implemented these in the math SOL tests in 2012 and
the reading SOL tests in 2013. Mirroring the trend in the state as a
whole, both Charlottesville and Albemarle divisions saw a notable
decline in pass rates for both reading and math across 3rd, 5th, and 8th
grade for the 2012-2013 school year.
- Data considerations: Because SOL tests are
administered to all children enrolled in public schools in Virginia,
these data provide a full picture of the population of children in
public schools; however, this measure provides no information on
children not enrolled in public schools (e.g., children who are
homeschooled or attend private schools). Further, SOL tests were not
administered at the end of the 2019-2020 school year due to closures
during the COVID-19 pandemic. While traditionally participation on the
SOL tests has been high (approximately 95%), participation dropped
notably in 2020-2021 (approximately 70%) as schools reopened with COVID
health precautions.
- How is this measured?: The pass rate is the number
of students in a given grade who passed the math or reading SOL test
(i.e., scoring 400 or above) for that grade level as a percent of the
total number of students in that grade who took the math or reading SOL
test.
Math: Grades 3, 5, and 8
Math is a fundamental subject that is necessary for success in many
college and career paths, and children who are proficient at math will
be able to access a wide range of paths.
Notable Trends
- Both Charlottesville City School (CCS) and Albemarle County Public
Schools (ACPS) saw a steep drop in pass rates in 2021 as schools began
reopening after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Both declines
mirror those seen in the state overall.
- CCS and ACPS have experienced similar pass rates in 3rd grade math
throughout 2006 to present. 5th grade pass rates in CCS, though, dropped
notably below those in ACPS after the 2012 revisions. For 8th grade pass
rates, CCS were higher than ACPS from 2014-2018.
Percent of Students who Pass the 3rd Grade Math SOL Test for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Percent of Students who Pass the 5th Grade Math SOL Test for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Percent of Students who Pass the 8th Grade Math SOL Test for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE). “Test
Results Build-A-Table.” 2006 - 2021.
Reading: Grades 3, 5, and 8
Reading test scores measure a students’ ability to read at grade
level. Not meeting reading proficiency has lasting impacts on student
academic success, degree attainment, and future earnings. Third
grade reading is particularly important as this is when children
transition from learning to read to reading to learn.
Notable Trends
- There was a decline in pass rates in 2020 in 3rd and 8th grade in
Charlottesville City Schools (CCS), and in 5th grade for Albemarle
County Public Schools (ACPS). These dips reflect similar declines in the
state after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.
- CCS and ACPS have experienced similar pass rates in 3rd grade
reading throughout 2006 to present. 5th and 8th grade passing rates in
CCS dropped notably below those in ACPS after the 2013 revisions. These
apparent differences in 5th and 8th grade could be, in part, due to the
changing population of students during the middle school years, as the
Charlottesville region is home to multiple private middle schools.
Percent of Students who Pass the 3rd Grade Reading SOL Test for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Percent of Students who Pass the 5th Grade Reading SOL Test for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Percent of Students who Pass the 8th Grade Reading SOL Test for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE). “Test
Results Build-A-Table.” 2006 - 2021.
Students Eligible for Special Education Services
Special education services are intended to ensure students with
disabilities have access to a meaningful public education. The
Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA) guarantees a free
appropriate public education to all eligible children with disabilities.
Students with a disability – hearing impairment, including deafness;
speech or language impairment; visual impairment, including blindness;
orthopedic impairment; autism; traumatic brain injury; developmental
delay; other health impairment; intellectual disability; specific
learning disability; serious emotional disturbance; or multiple
disabilities – receive special education and related services under the
IDEA. See
VDOE for more details.
- Data considerations: These data are collected for
the administration of special education services and represent the
complete record of children deemed eligible for special education
services. Eligibility is determined through evaluation processes to
identify disabilities and determine needed services. Increasing numbers
of students receiving special education services can reflect increased
access to needed resources, as disability diagnoses become less
stigmatized. However, research has highlighted that students of color
may be disproportionately assigned a disability classification (e.g., Why are So Many Students of
Color in Special Education?) in a process that continues to
segregate children, affording fewer opportunities to children of
color.
- How is this measured?: This metric is the number of
students identified as eligible for special education services as a
percent of all students in the school division.
Notable Trends
- From 2011 through 2017, the percent of students receiving special
education services in Albemarle County Public Schools (ACPS) was below
that for Charlottesville City Schools (CCS).
- The percent in ACPS increased modestly after 2015 and has been very
similar to the percent in CCS since. This modest increase mirrors the
trend nationally. From 2009–10 through 2020–21, the number of students
ages 3–21 who received special education services under IDEA increased
from 13% of total public school enrollment to 15% of total public school
enrollment (NCES).
Percent of Students Identified to Receive Special Services for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education, “December 1
Build-A-Table.” 2011-2022.
English Learners
An English Learner (EL) is a student who is not fully proficient in
English and requires language-based accommodations to effectively learn
during their K-12 education. Multilingual learners have been a growing
segment of the student population in Virginia but have
not always had access to needed resources.
- Data considerations: An English Language Screening
assessment is administered to potential EL students during the
enrollment process and to all current EL students annually to determine
eligibility for English language instructional services. The data can be
used to provide a full picture of the current composition of EL students
in schools. However, this measure provides no information on children
not enrolled in public schools (e.g., children who are homeschooled or
attend private schools).
- How is this measured?: The count of identified
students whose native language is a language other than English and have
difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English
language as a percent of all students in the school division. Former
English Learners are not included in the count.
Notable Trends
- The percentage of ELs in both Charlottesville City Schools (CCS) and
Albemarle County Public Schools (ACPS) has grown between 2003-2023,
mirroring growth in the state overall. While initially at a similar
level (around 5%), the increase has been especially sharp in CCS; by the
2022-23 school year, 14% of CCS students were identified as ELs compared
to 9% of ACPS students and 11% of students in Virginia.
Percent of Students Identified as English Learners for Albemarle
County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and Virginia Public
Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education, “Fall
Membership Build-A-Table.” 2011-2022.
Average Daily Attendance
High Average Daily Attendance (ADA) indicates that students are
attending school regularly, and regular attendance is associated with
greater student success. Consequently, attendance
and engagement have been a focus for educators and schools.
- Data considerations: This metric is derived from
data collected as part of the administration of schools and provides a
complete description of school attendance to the extent attendance data
is recorded consistently and correctly within the schools that make up
the division. However, Average Daily Attendance can mask chronic
absenteeism as this metric does not incorporate information on who is
absent. The
same rate of Average Daily Attendance could result from most students
missing a few days or from the same group of students missing many
days.
- How is this measured?: ADA is calculated as the sum
of daily attendance (children in school) as a percent of the sum of
daily membership (children enrolled). It represents the percentage of a
school’s student body in attendance on a typical day.
Notable Trends
- Both Albemarle County Public Schools (ACPS) and Charlottesville City
Schools (CCS) had a consistent rate of Average Daily Attendance from
2008-2019, hovering around 96%, just above the state average of
95%.
- In 2019-20, ACPS saw an increase to 98% as public schools closed and
transitioned online due to the COVID-19 Pandemic; attendance rates
remained steady in CCS. In 2021-22, with schools fully reopened, the ADA
rate dipped to 93-94% in both divisions and the state as a whole.
On-Time Graduation Rates
On-time graduation measures the percentage of students that graduated
from public schools within four years of entering high school. On-time
graduation is an important indicator of whether localities are preparing
most students for college or career readiness, as a high school diploma
is a standard requirement for many jobs and for accessing higher
education.
- Data considerations: This rate is derived from
Virginia’s longitudinal student data system linking the records of
students who entered 9th grade for the first time in a given year
(beginning in 2004) with their records four years later to determine
their graduation or completion status. The measure accounts for student
mobility, retention, and promotion patterns and provides a complete
description of completion outcomes for each cohort attending public
schools. Students who earn a GED or a certificate of completion are not
counted as dropouts or as graduates when calculating the on-time
graduation rate.
- How is this measured?: On-time graduation is
defined as students who earn a Virginia Board of Education-approved
diploma among students who entered 9th grade for the first time together
and were scheduled to graduate four years later; the percent represents
students in a cohort who graduated on time over all students in that
cohort, (multiplied by 100). This measure recognizes that some students
with disabilities and limited English proficiency are allowed more than
the standard four years to earn a diploma and counts those students as
“on-time” graduates. See
VDOE for more.
Notable Trends
- In 2008, when on-time graduate rates were first measured, Albemarle
County Public Schools (ACPS) had a considerably higher rate of on-time
graduation (88%) than Charlottesville City Schools (CCS) (75%); the
Virginia state-wide rate was 82%. On-time graduation rates have
increased in both divisions and in the state overall since then, and
both divisions saw an on-time graduation rate of about 93-94% in 2022,
above the state rate of 92%.
- Improvement in ACPS has been steady throughout this period. In CCS,
the rate dipped in 2013 before showing dramatic increases thereafter.
Notably, improving
graduation rates was a priority outlined in Charlottesville City
Schools Strategic Plan for 2007-2011.
Percent of Student Cohort Graduating in Four Years for Albemarle
County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and Virginia Public
Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education, “Cohort
Graduation Build-A-Table”, Virginia On-Time Graduation Rate,
2008-2022.
Post-Secondary Enrollment
The rate of post-secondary enrollment measures the percent of
graduating high school seniors who enter a higher education institution
(e.g., college, university or community college) within 16 months after
graduating from high school. It is increasingly common for jobs to
require post-secondary education or postsecondary training or
certification.
- Data considerations: This metric tracks each
graduating cohort’s enrollment in a two- or four-year college or
university anywhere in the United States. It is an accurate and complete
reflection of education enrollment immediately following high school,
but it does not include information on students who begin college more
than 16 months after graduation.
- How is this measured?: The VDOE uses data from the
National Student
Clearinghouse to track college attendance nationwide among students
graduating from Virginia’s public schools. This metric represents the
number of students in a division’s graduating cohort who enroll in any
institution of higher education within 16 months of graduating as a
percent of the number of students in the graduating cohort.
Notable Trends
- The percentage of graduates enrolling in any post-secondary
Institute of Higher Education (IHE) is consistently higher among
Albemarle County Public School (ACPS) graduates than Charlottesville
City Schools (CCS) or Virginia graduates overall; however, the
percentage has declined in CCS, ACPS, and Virginia from 2008 to 2022. In
ACPS, the percentage has fallen from 79% in 2008 (with a high of 82% in
2009) to 75% in 2022. In CCS, the percentage has fallen from 73% in 2008
(with a high of 77% in 2013) to 64% in 2022.
- The percentage of graduates enrolling in a four-year institution is
consistently higher in ACPS graduates than CCS or Virginia graduates.
The percentage has fluctuated in both divisions from 2008 to 2020, with
the most recent years showing a decline to 52% in ACPS and 43% in CCS,
compared to 41% statewide.
Percent of Graduating Students Enrolled in a Post-Secondary
Institution within 16 months of High School Graduation for Albemarle
County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and Virginia Public
Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education, State
Fiscal Stabilization Fund Indicator (C)(11), “Postsecondary
Enrollment Reports.” 2008-2020.
High School Degree Attainment
Earning a high school (H.S.) diploma is a minimum requirement for
many jobs and to pursue higher education, thus it can have wide-ranging
health, social, and economic impacts. The rate of education attainment
in a community not only reflects benefits to individuals but is also
related to community economic and population health.
- Data considerations: This metric is derived from
the American Community Survey (ACS), a continuous survey given to a
sample of housing unit addresses each month. Each year the survey
releases 5-year estimates, pooling data from all surveyed households
throughout a 60-month period. As a survey, rather than a census, the ACS
provides estimates of population characteristics and these estimates
have a degree of uncertainty, or sampling error, associated with them.
Importantly, this metric does not capture the performance of schools in
a given city but rather on the highest level of education achieved by
adults who reside in that city, regardless of where they attended
school.
- How is this measured?: The measure is the count of
residents who are 25 or over who have received at least a H.S. diploma
or equivalent (including GEDs) over the count of all residents aged 25
or over in the relevant city, county, or state (multiplied by 100).
Notable Trends
- The percentage of residents with a H.S. diploma or more has been
high and steady in Albemarle County, starting at 91% in 2010 and
increasing slightly to 93% in 2021.
- Among Charlottesville City residents there has been significant
growth, with a H.S. diploma attainment rate of 85% in 2010 and a rate of
92% in 2021, essentially matching the rate in Albemarle County. From
2013 onward, the H.S. diploma attainment rate in both localities has
exceeded that of the state as a whole.
Percent of Residents Age 25 and Older with a High School Degree or
Equivalent in Albemarle County, City of Charlottesville, and
Virginia

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community
Survey 5-year estimates, “Educational Attainment.” 2010 - 2021. Table
S1501.
Registered Voters
Voting in elections is a central form of participation in a
democracy. Until 2022, citizens in Virginia had to be registered voters
prior to an election to participate–beginning in 2022, citizens
could register the day of an election and cast a provisional ballot.
While not all registered voters will vote in a given election, the
percent of eligible voters who are registered establishes a foundation
for engagement and serves as one indicator of the health of local
democracy, citizen power, and community engagement.
- Data considerations: This measure is derived from
registration data. Registration data represent an authoritative list of
an event (e.g., voters). Registration data is closer to census data in
that it attempts to capture all relevant events to accurately reflect
the population. While voter registration can speak to political
participation among residents, it is also impacted by whether residents
are U.S citizens, have access to registration documents, or are
ineligible due to policies like felony disenfranchisement; such
determinants are known historically to depress registration among
racially minoritized residents.
- How is this measured?: The number of registered
voters was taken from the Virginia Department of Elections for
2000-2021. To calculate the percent of registered voters, we divided the
number of registered voters by the population of residents aged 18 and
over, as estimated by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services and provided in CDC
Wonder.
Notable Trends
- The share of individuals who are registered to vote has been growing
consistently over time. In Charlottesville, the percent of residents
registered to vote has grown from 63% in 2000 to 88% in 2020. In
Albemarle, the voter registration rate has grown from 84% to 95%. Except
for the period from 2012 to 2016, Charlottesville has maintained a lower
voter registration rate than Virginia as a whole.
Percent of Adults (18+) Registered to Vote in Albemarle County, City
of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Sources: Virginia Department of Elections, “Registration
Statistics, 2000-2022.”; U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, CDC Wonder, “Bridged-Race
Population Estimates, United States July 1st resident population by
state, county, age, sex, bridged-race, and Hispanic origin.”
1990-2020 database (Vintage 2020).
Economic Security and Housing
Income Per Capita
Income Per Capita (IPC) serves as a measure of economic health for a
region and is intended to capture the economic development of an area
and the standard of living of those residing in the area.
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
administrative data, or data collected for the administration of
publicly funded programs or services (e.g., state unemployment
insurance, state and federal income taxes), and then combined with
government surveys. As such, they capture a relatively complete picture
of income among the population subject to formal income reporting. While
IPC is a common measure of the average income per person, it does not
account for the distribution of that income within the population and so
can mask significant income inequality. In addition, IPC doesn’t reflect
income in the informal economy where transactions are not reported.
- How is this measured?: Area income represents the
total sum of the income received by the people in an area. The U.S.
Bureau of Economic Analysis measure includes the income that U.S.
residents get from paychecks, employer-provided supplements (like
insurance), business ownership, rental property, Social Security and
other government benefits, interest, and dividends. The Income Per
Capita divides this sum by the total population in the area. This
calculation distributes the average income across both working
populations and populations that do not work or generate income, such as
children. The Charlottesville and Albemarle value represents the data
from the combined localities of Charlottesville and Albemarle. The
inflation-adjusted version uses the Consumer Price Index with 2010 as
the base year.
Notable Trends
- In the last 20 years, the average per capita income of
Charlottesville and Albemarle has increased. The only break in this
trend is a dip in 2008 and 2009 reflecting the 2008 recession.
- After 2013, the area IPC began increasing at a faster rate than the
state of Virginia.
Income Per Capita for Charlottesville and Albemarle Combined and
Virginia

Sources: U.S. Bureau
of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Accounts, “CAINC1 County and
MSA personal income summary: personal income, population, per capita
personal income”; U.S. Bureau
of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Accounts, “SASUMMARY State
annual summary statistics: personal income, GDP, consumer spending,
price indexes, and employment”; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Consumer Price Index, “All items in U.S. city average, all urban
consumers, not seasonally adjusted”, Series Id CUUR0000SA0.
Youth Labor Force Participation and Unemployment
Labor force participation among young people and youth unemployment
can shed light on both the health of the economy and the well-being of
young people. High unemployment rates for youth may suggest economic
struggles or a mismatch between the skills that young people possess and
the skills employers are seeking.
- Data considerations: This metric is derived from
the American Community Survey (ACS), a continuous survey given to a
sample of housing unit addresses each month. Each year the survey
releases 5-year estimates, pooling data from all surveyed households
throughout a 60-month period. As a survey, rather than a census, the ACS
provides estimates of population characteristics and these estimates
have a degree of uncertainty, or sampling error, associated with them.
Labor force participation and unemployment do not include discouraged
workers who have searched for a job in the last year but have given
up.
- How is this measured?: The youth labor force
participation rate is the number of 15-24 year olds who are employed or
are seeking employment as a percentage of the number of residents aged
15-24. The youth unemployment rate is the number of 15-24 year olds who
have reported that they do not have a job but are ready to work and have
been seeking employment within the last 4 weeks as a percentage of the
number of residents aged 15-24 in the labor force.
Notable Trends
- Youth participation in the labor force in both Charlottesville and
Albemarle is below that of the state overall. In recent years, labor
force participation of Charlottesville youth has grown relative to that
of young people in Albemarle. In 2021, 32% of Charlottesville youth were
in the labor force compared to 24% of Albemarle youth.
- Youth experienced similar rates of unemployment from 2011 to 2015 in
both Charlottesville and Albemarle. From 2016 to 2019, the youth
unemployment rate in Charlottesville jumped, peaking at 23%, while the
youth unemployment rate in Albemarle fell, hovering around 8%. In recent
years the youth unemployment rate has declined in both localities.
Percent of Youth (15-24) Participating in the Labor Force for
Albemarle County, City of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Percent of Youth (15-24) in the Labor Force Experiencing
Unemployment for Albemarle County, City of Charlottesville, and
Virginia

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community
Survey 5-year estimates, “Sex by Age by Employment Status.” 2010-2021.
Table
B23001.
Children Living below Poverty Threshold
When children grow up in poverty, they are more likely to have
inadequate nutrition, limited access to health care services, unstable
housing, lower quality of schools, and exposure to environmental toxins,
all of which have short- and long-term physical and mental impacts.
- Data considerations: According to the Census, Small
Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE) “are not direct counts from
enumerations or administrative records, nor direct estimates from sample
surveys. Instead, for counties and states, we model income and poverty
estimates by combining survey data with population estimates and
administrative records.” As such, these estimates have a degree of
uncertainty associated with them.
- How is this measured?: This metric is measured as a
percentage of families with incomes below the yearly poverty level out
of all families. In 2022, the federal poverty level for a family of four
was $27,750.
Notable Trends
- The child poverty rate in Charlottesville is consistently higher
than that in the state, ranging between 15% and 24%; the child poverty
rate in Albemarle is consistently lower than that in the state, ranging
between 7% and 12%.
- Although the percent in the county is lower, due to the difference
in population between the City of Charlottesville and Albemarle County,
it represents a higher number of children. In 2021, the count in
Charlottesville was 1,453 compared to 1,821 in Albemarle.
- In 2020, Charlottesville, Albemarle, and Virginia experienced their
lowest rates of child poverty in the years measured, as the stimulus
payments and child tax credit expansion were in place to provide relief
in the midst of the COVID-19 Pandemic. These
policies are widely credited with keeping 3.7 million children out of
poverty nationwide.
Students Identified as Economically Disadvantaged
Students are identified as economically disadvantaged if they meet
one or more of the following conditions: eligible for free or reduced
meals (family income is within 130% or 185% of federal poverty
threshold), are eligible for TANF, Medicaid and/or Head Start, or
identified as from a migrant family, experiencing homelessness, or in
foster care. This measure is an indicator of low-income families.
Students in low-income households face additional challenges that can
hinder their learning. In addition, education funding is influenced by
the presence of economically disadvantaged students via
the At-Risk Add-On.
- Data considerations: This metric can be used to
provide a picture of the current composition of students from low-income
families to the extent economic need has been revealed to and verified
by the schools. Historically, eligibility for free or reduced lunch has
been one of the most frequent indicators of economic disadvantage; the
National School Lunch Program has been a key policy to reduce hunger for
children from economically insecure families. The USDA Community
Eligibility Provision (CEP) was created in 2010 to allow high-poverty
schools an opportunity to apply to offer all students at a school free-
or reduced-price-meals. Charlottesville
City Schools have been participating in CEP since 2018, and Albemarle
County Public Schools began participating in 2022.
- How is this measured?: This measures the count of
students identified as economically disadvantaged as a percentage of all
students in the school division.
Notable Trends
- The percent of economically disadvantaged students has been
considerably higher in Charlottesville City Schools throughout this
period, hovering around 50%. In Albemarle County Public Schools, the
percentage has risen steadily from below 20% in 2004-05 to around 30% in
recent years.
- Although the percent in the county is lower, due to the difference
in population between the City of Charlottesville and Albemarle County,
it represents a higher number of children. In the 2022-23 school year,
the count in Charlottesville was 2,404 compared to 4,333 in
Albemarle.
Percent of Students Identified as Economically Disadvantaged for
Albemarle County Public Schools, Charlottesville City Schools, and
Virginia Public Schools

Source: Virginia Department of Education, “Fall
Membership Build-A-Table.” 2004-2023.
Cost-Burdened Households: Renters and Homeowners
Cost-burdened renters and homeowners are paying more than 30% of
their income for housing (rent and utilities or mortgage payments,
taxes, insurance, and utilities). Rent burden is an indicator of housing
insecurity, as rent-burdened households may struggle to balance paying
housing costs with purchasing other necessities. These are also
indicators of housing affordability for a region.
- Data considerations: This metric is derived from
the American Community Survey (ACS), a continuous survey given to a
sample of housing unit addresses each month. Each year the survey
releases 5-year estimates, pooling data from all surveyed households
throughout a 60-month period. As a survey, rather than a census, the ACS
provides estimates of population characteristics and these estimates
have a degree of uncertainty, or sampling error, associated with them.
In addition, this metric does not reflect housing quality – some
households may choose to live in lower-quality housing to reduce costs –
or other costs associated with housing, like transportation.
- How are these measured?:
- The monthly rent paid by a household is divided by the household’s
monthly income. Any renting households for which this ratio exceeds 30%
are identified as cost-burdened renters. The percentage of cost-burdened
renters is the count of these cost-burdened households over the number
of all renter-occupied households in an area.
- The monthly housing costs paid by a household (mortgage, mortgage
insurance, real estate taxes, utilities) is divided by the household’s
monthly income. Any owner-occupied households for which this ratio
exceeds 30% are identified as cost-burdened homeowners. The percentage
of cost-burdened homeowners is the count of these cost-burdened
households over the number of all owner-occupied households in an
area.
Notable Trends
- The percent of renters who are cost burdened is consistently high in
Charlottesville, hovering around 50% (with a high of 56% in 2009 and a
low of 46% in 2017). In Albemarle, the percentage of cost-burdened
renters is slightly lower, hovering in the low 40s (with a high of 44%
in 2011 and 2014 and a low of 41% in 2009).
- The percent of homeowners who are cost-burdened has declined
steadily in both Charlottesville and Albemarle over this period. In
Charlottesville, the percent has fallen from 30% in 2010 to 18% in 2021;
in Albemarle, the percent has fallen from a similar amount, from 27% in
2010 to 18% in 2021. These trends reflect those statewide.
- Nationally, there is a growing
gap between the housing costs for homeowners compared to renters.
The decline in homeowner housing costs may be related to stricter credit
standards and declining interest rates following the financial crisis in
2007-2009.
Percent of Renters Paying more than 30% of their Income on Housing
(Rent and Utilities) for Albemarle County, City of Charlottesville, and
Virginia

Percent of Homeowners Paying more than 30% of their Income on
Housing (Mortgage payments, Taxes, Insurance, and Utilities) for
Albemarle County, City of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community
Survey 5-year estimates, “Gross Rent as a Percentage of Household Income
in the Past 12 Months.” 2009-2021. Table
B25070; U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 5-year
estimates, “Tenure by Housing Costs as a Percentage of Household Income
in the Past 12 Months.” 2009-2021. Table
B25106.
People Experiencing Homelessness
The Point-in-Time (PIT) count is conducted each year in January to
document the scale and nature of homelessness in our area. The U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development requires that every
Continuum of Care (or CoC, the regional or local planning body that
coordinates housing and services funding for homeless families and
individuals) conduct a Point-in-Time count at least every other year. In
addition to identifying needs and informing policy, the PIT count is a
reflection of housing affordability in the region.
- Data considerations: The PIT count is intended to
be a complete count of individuals in emergency shelters and who are
unsheltered at a given point of time. It cannot capture individuals or
families who are without secure housing and staying with family or
friends or in short-term hotels.
- How is this measured?: The PIT count is a “count of
sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons carried out on one night in
the last 10 calendar days of January.” The Blue Ridge Area Coalition for the
Homeless (BRACH) is our regional CoC and has conducted the PIT count
annually. See
HUD for more.
Notable Trends
- In 2010, the count of people in emergency shelter or without shelter
reached 228. The count declined in subsequent years, reaching a low in
2016 at 157.
- The
Crossings was opened in 2012 as Charlottesville’s first permanent
supportive housing community for formerly homeless individuals and has
made a significant impact on the decrease in chronic
homelessness in the area.
- The number increased substantially in 2022 in response to needs
arising from the COVID-19 Pandemic and interventions resulting from
funding made available for sheltering people in hotels.
Point-in-Time Count of People Experiencing Homelessness for the
Charlottesville Region, conducted yearly in January

Source: Blue Ridge Area Coalition for the Homeless,
“Point-in-Time Count”, 2009-2022.
Health and Family Stability
Prenatal Care
Prenatal care is the health care that individuals receive while
pregnant. Prenatal care typically includes physical exams, weight
checks, urine and/or blood samples, ultrasounds, and discussions about
the mother’s and fetus’s health. Prenatal care is important to reduce
the risk of pregnancy complications. Late prenatal care is defined as
pregnancy-related care beginning in the 3rd trimester (7-9 months). Research
has demonstrated that prenatal care dramatically reduces the negative
effect of substances during pregnancy, including decreasing the
risks of low birth weight and prematurity. Reducing barriers to prenatal
care has been a priority of the Blue Ridge Health District’s MAPP2Health
Community Assessment and Improvement Plan since 2008.
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
health registration data. Registration data represent an authoritative
list of births known to the Department of Health. Registration data is
closer to census data in that it attempts to capture all relevant events
to accurately reflect the population. Error may be introduced if
relevant events are not captured.
- How is this measured?: This metric is based on
Virginia Department of Health’s Vital Events Statistics program and
records the number of mothers who have received adequate prenatal care
as a percent of the total number of live births with residence in the
area.
Notable Trends
- In 2010, Charlottesville and Albemarle experienced a nearly 20%
increase in the number of mothers receiving prenatal care. This increase
is indicative of more mothers having access to necessary care.
- After the passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA), which defines
maternity care as one of ten essential benefits, the rate
of uninsured new mothers decreased by forty-one percent nationally.
The ACA also improved the quality of coverage of prenatal care by
requiring coverage for maternity and newborn care, securing over 13
million people with maternity services.
- Since 2010, this percentage has slowly decreased from around 97% to
around 95%.
Percent of People Giving Birth with Prenatal Care for Albemarle
County, City of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Sources: Virginia Department of Health, “Maternal
& Child Health.”, 2006-2017; Community Health Improvement Data
Portal, VDH Assessment, “Maternal
and Child Health.” 2018-2020.
Low Birth-Weight Infants
Low birth-weight is an indicator of current infant and maternal
health, as well as future health, as low birth-weight babies are at
higher risk of dying early, and long-term health and development issues.
Low birthweight is defined as less than 2,500 grams (about 5.5 lbs).
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
health registration data. Registration data represent an authoritative
list of births known to the Virginia Department of Health. Registration
data is closer to census data in that it attempts to capture all
relevant events to accurately reflect the population. Error may be
introduced if relevant events are not captured.
- How is this measured?: This metric is based on
Virginia Department of Health’s Vital Events Statistics program and
records the number of live births of babies weighing less than 2,500
grams as a percent of the total number of live births with residence in
the area.
Notable Trends
- The percent of low birth-weight babies born in Albemarle has held
steady over this period hovering around 6-7%, slightly below the
Virginia rate of about 8%.
- In Charlottesville, the percentage of low birth-weight babies has
fallen from rates hovering around 8-9% in the 2000s to rates around 6-7%
in the last decade.
Infant Deaths
Infant mortality measures the rate at which babies die before their
first birthday per 1,000 live births. Infant mortality is an indicator
of infant health; the most common causes of infant mortality include
birth defects, preterm birth and low birth weight, maternal
complications of pregnancy, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, and
injuries.
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
health registration data. Registration data represent an authoritative
list of births known to the Virginia Department of Health. Registration
data is closer to census data in that it attempts to capture all
relevant events to accurately reflect the population. Error may be
introduced if relevant events are not captured.
- How is this measured?: This metric is based on
Virginia Department of Health’s Vital Events Statistics program and
records the number of infant deaths as a percent of the total number of
live births with residence in the area.
Notable Trends
- The rate of infant deaths has declined in each locality and
throughout Virginia in the last two decades. The improvement has been
especially substantial in Charlottesville where the 3-year rolling
average declined steadily between 2006 (12 per 1,000) and 2014 (3 per
1,000), before ticking up again.
- In Albemarle, the rate was steady at 5 deaths per 1,000 births from
2001-2005, edged up to 7 per 1,000 in 2006-2009, and fell to 2-3 per
1,000 until 2018, when there was an increase.
Teen Pregnancies and Births to Teens
According to the VDH, teen pregnancy has unique medical risks – lack
of prenatal care, high blood pressure, premature birth, low birth
weight, STDs, and postpartum depression. Apart from health concerns,
teen pregnancy also has serious social and economic consequences. Teen
births are more likely to lead to poor outcomes for both teenage mothers
and their children.
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
health registration data. Registration data represent an authoritative
list of births known to the Department of Health. Registration data is
closer to census data in that it attempts to capture all relevant events
to accurately reflect the population. Error may be introduced if
relevant events are not captured.
- How is this measured?: The teenage pregnancy rate
is the sum of live births, legal induced abortions, and natural fetal
deaths per 1,000 women aged 15-17 years. The data presented is based on
three-year rolling averages.
Notable Trends
- Teen pregnancy rates show a steady decline in Virginia, Albemarle,
and Charlottesville, though the drop is particularly substantial in
Charlottesville which experienced an exceptionally high rate in 2004 and
2005 (based on 3-year rolling averages). In the most recent period
available, the teen pregnancy rate per 1,000 was 5 in Albemarle, 9 in
Charlottesville, and 7 in Virginia. According to
the CDC, the national teen pregnancy rate has declined continuously
since 1991. Research
suggests the declines nationally are a function of increased
contraceptive availability and use as well as decreased sexual
activity.
- Teen birth rates have fallen significantly in the last two decades,
mirroring the trend in teen pregnancy rates. The change in
Charlottesville was the sharpest, from a high of 37 births per 1,000
teenage girls in 2003 (based on a 3-year rolling average) to low of 3
births per 1,000 in 2015 and 2016. In Albemarle the teen birth rate
hovered around 10 births per 1,000 until 2009 when it began dropping to
the current rate of 4 births per 1,000 teenage girls.
Rate of Pregnancies for Teens, Ages 15-17, for Albemarle County,
City of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Rate of Births to Teens, Ages 15-17, for Albemarle County, City of
Charlottesville, and Virginia

Sources: Virginia
Department of Health, Division of Health Statistics, “Teenage
pregnancies, live births by city/county.” 2000-2022; U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, CDC Wonder, “Bridged-Race
Population Estimates, United States July 1st resident population by
state, county, age, sex, bridged-race, and Hispanic origin.”
1990-2020 database (Vintage 2020).
Sexually Transmitted Infections in Youth
Nationally, the rate of sexually transmitted infections has been on
the rise. The CDC
estimates that youth ages 15-24 account for almost half of new
infections. Adolescents
are uniquely at risk for STIs as they are less likely than adults to
access and utilize sexual health services and public policies regularly
limit young people’s access to sexual health information.
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
health registration data. Registration data represent an authoritative
list of diagnoses known to the Virginia Department of Health.
Registration data is closer to census data in that it attempts to
capture all relevant events to accurately reflect the population. Error
may be introduced if relevant events are not captured.
- How is this measured?: This measure is the combined
incidence of syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and HIV per 1,000 residents
aged 10-19. This incidence rate only counts cases first reported; for
HIV, the incidence rate will count a new case in the first year it is
diagnosed, but not in the following years, even though a patient still
has the condition and is receiving treatment.
Notable Trends
- The incidence rates of STIs among youth in Charlottesville have been
consistently higher than the rate in Albemarle, though in recent years
the rate in Charlottesville has fallen steeply and become aligned with
the rate in the state overall, 10 cases per 1,000 young people. The
incidence rate in Albemarle has hovered around 5 cases per 1,000 young
people throughout this period.
Children in Two-Parent Households
Research suggests children living in two-parent households, on
average, are more advantaged than single-parent households. Married
parent households are typically better off financially and family
structure can influence children’s socioemotional development and academic
achievement. In addition, lower rates of two-parent households can
be indicators of higher rates of divorce/separation or impacted by
incarceration trends.
- Data considerations: This metric is derived from
the American Community Survey (ACS), a continuous survey given to a
sample of housing unit addresses each month. Each year the survey
releases 5-year estimates, pooling data from all surveyed households
throughout a 60-month period. As a survey, rather than a census, the ACS
provides estimates of population characteristics and these estimates
have a degree of uncertainty, or sampling error, associated with them.
In addition, this measure does not include children living in households
with two adults who are not both parents of the child as children living
with two parents.
- How is this measured?: The percent of children
living with two parents is derived by totaling children ages 0-17 where
child/ren are living with both parents and dividing over the total
number of children under 18 years in families and subfamilies
(multiplied by 100).
Notable Trends
- Albemarle consistently has a larger share of two-parent households
relative to Charlottesville. County trends show a steady increase from
78% in 2010 to 85% in 2016, followed by a decline to 75% in 2021.
- In Charlottesville, the percent of two-parent households fell
between 2011 and 2014, to a low of 58%, before gradually rising back to
65% in 2020.
Percent of Children in Two-Parent Households for Albemarle County,
City of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community
Survey 5-year estimates, “Age And Nativity Of Own Children Under 18
Years In Families And Subfamilies By Number And Nativity Of Parents.”
2010 - 2021. Table
B05009.
Divorce
Divorce rates are one indicator of the health of families. Divorce
impacts not only the individuals who are receiving the divorce, but
their dependents, income, and assets. Divorce rates are also shaped by
marriage rates, which have been declining nationally over time.
Additionally, while divorce rates can indicate household instability,
they also represent the ability of a spouse to leave a dangerous
household. This is important in a larger understanding of community
wellbeing as the reasons for divorce are complicated and nuanced.
- Data considerations: These data are derived from
administrative data, either data from the Virginia Department of Health
(VDH) as part of vital events statistics, or data from the Virginia
Judicial System on concluded cases in circuit court. Administrative data
can provide a full picture of the population experiencing an event like
divorce. However, they do not capture family dissolution outside of
those that pursue a legal divorce.
- How is this measured?: The first measure comes from
the health department which captures the number of divorce certificates
registered with the area’s health department as a percentage of the
estimated population of the locality. The second measure comes from
circuit court records and captures the number of divorce cases concluded
in the circuit court for each locality as a percentage of the estimated
population of the locality. Both versions provide the crude divorce
rate, a commonly used metric that does not correct for the fact that
single people and children are not at risk for divorce.
Notable Trends
- Nationally, divorce rates have been falling in the last two decades
and this is reflected in the declining state-wide divorce rate, by
either measure.
- The VDH’s record of divorces also shows a declining rate in
Charlottesville and Albemarle, with a larger decrease for
Charlottesville.
- The circuit court data shows a small increase in divorce rates
within Albemarle Circuit Court over time. Both localities (and the
state) experienced a small bump in 2021, which could be a function of
court delays during the COVID-19 pandemic peak in 2020.
Virginia Department of Health: Rate of Divorce for Albemarle County,
City of Charlottesville, and Virginia

Assessments and Investigations by Child Protective Services
Reports of potential child neglect or abuse are one indicator of
child wellbeing and may signal that more or fewer children are being
identified as potentially at risk or that there is greater awareness of
the signs of abuse and neglect within the community. Childhood
maltreatment, in addition to having an immediate and negative impact on
children, has been linked to later physical,
psychological, and behavioral consequences.
- Data considerations: Child abuse and neglect
referrals are made to Child Protective Services who make a determination
of whether the referral meets the threshold and criteria for further
action and, if so, whether to pursue a family assessment or an
investigation. As such, this measure is not reporting the substantiated
occurrence of neglect or abuse, but the valid reporting of potential
neglect or abuse. These data, then, capture only cases that have been
referred by a community member and have been screened in by social
services. Reports to CPS require someone to observe or evaluate behavior
as meeting a threshold of neglect or abuse, and research
has demonstrated racial bias in these choices as well as a conflation
of neglect with economic insecurity. The majority of accepted
referrals to CPS are made for “physical neglect,” an occurrence open to
considerable interpretation.
- How is this measured?: This metric captures the
number of referrals to Child Protective Services accepted for assessment
or investigation in Virginia, regardless of outcome, over the number of
children aged 0-17 in the area and multiplied by 1,000.
Notable Trends
- The rate of child neglect and abuse assessments and investigations
has fluctuated in both Charlottesville and Albemarle but is consistently
higher in Charlottesville. Poverty has been consistently linked to
judgments of neglect used in child welfare, and the rate of poverty is
considerably lower in Albemarle than in Charlottesville (e.g., 7% versus
23% based on American Community Survey 2016-2021 estimates).
- In Charlottesville, the rate has generally declined from a high of
nearly 50 per 1,000 children in 2009 to 34 per 1,000 in the most recent
year.
- The rate in Albemarle has been as high as 21 per 1,000 in 2009 and
as low as 12 per 1,000 in 2011, but jumped back up to 19 per 1,000 by
2020.
- Many CPS referrals are made by educational professionals in schools,
and COVID-19 caused schools to close for the second half of fiscal year
2020.
Children in Foster Care
Children in foster care are among our most vulnerable children. The
rate of family separation is both an indicator of child welfare and of
the unmet need or underinvestment in policies and resources to support
families in the community. Neglect, often a proxy for the effects of
poverty, is one
of the most common reasons for a child’s removal from the home
nationally, including “failure to provide adequate nutrition,
supervision, health care, clothing, or housing.”
- Data considerations: While this data counts all
children in foster care at a point in time, a child’s presence in foster
care occurs only after multiple decisions made by people in a position
of authority. These data, then, reflect a series of actions,
evaluations, and decisions, many of which are subject to interpretation.
Research has long shown that minoritized populations, especially Black
children, are overrepresented in foster care, and legal and social
researchers have repeatedly
documented
the ways child welfare systems are entangled
with race.
- How is this measured?: This metric reports the
number of children in foster care on October 1 of each year divided by
the number of children aged 0-17 in the area and multiplied by
1,000.
Notable Trends
- The rate of children in foster care has been consistently higher in
Charlottesville than in Albemarle. The rate in Albemarle has remained
relatively steady, at around 5 children per 1,000, during this period.
The rate in Charlottesville has fallen substantially over time, from
rates above 20 children per 1,000 from 2006 to 2011 to 10 or fewer
children per 1,000 in 2021 and 2022.